The discussion in this section is not limited to subject matter that qualifies as “prior art” against the present invention. Therefore, no admission of such prior art status shall be implied or inferred by reason of inclusion of particular subject matter in this discussion, and no declaration against the present inventors' interests shall be implied by reason of such inclusion.
Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is the most common endocrine disease, and is characterized by abnormalities of glucose metabolism. The abnormal glucose metabolism associated with this disease results in hyperglycemia (high blood glucose levels) and eventually causes complications of multiple organ systems, including eyes, kidneys, nerves, and blood vessels. Patients with persistent hyperglycemia or abnormal glucose tolerance are generally diagnosed with the disease, although most commonly patients initially present with excessive urination (polyuria) and frequent drinking due to extreme thirst (polydipsia). These typical initial symptoms result from the osmotic effects of hyperglycemia.
The pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus is typically associated with pancreatic dysfunction, particularly of the beta cells of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans. This dysfunction may lead to destruction of the islet beta cells, which produce insulin, a glucose regulatory peptide hormone. Diabetes mellitus has been generally categorized as insulin dependent or type 1, versus non-insulin dependent, or type 2. However, this terminology has evolved as the disease has become better understood. For example, it has been found that in some patients suffering from non-insulin dependent diabetes, the disease progresses into an insulin dependent form, while in other patients insulin dependence does not develop.
Patients are thus often categorized in terms of the mechanisms of pathogenesis of islet destruction, and the designation type 1 is now used to refer to autoimmune islet pathogenesis, i.e., to diabetes caused by islet-specific autoimmune attack, and is so used herein. The term insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) refers to Type 1 diabetes that has progressed to a stage where enough autoimmune destruction of the pancreatic beta cells has occurred to produce overt symptoms. The term pre-IDDM refers to an autoimmune condition that can be detected by biopsy or by analysis of autoimmune responses, in which pancreatic islet beta cells are being subject to a specific autoimmune attack to an extent where some cells may be subject to destruction. In pre-IDDM, however, the destruction (if any) has not progressed to an extent sufficient to require the administration of insulin. Since there can be a point in the early stages of Type 1 diabetes in which overt symptoms are observed but some islet function remains (known as the “honeymoon period”, not all Type 1 diabetes is classified as IDDM, and not all pre-IDDM presents without overt symptoms.
Complications of Type 1 Diabetes The metabolic complications associated with the abnormal metabolism caused by insulin insufficiency can affect numerous organ systems. The most common acute metabolic complication is that of diabetic ketoacidosis, characterized by severe hyperglycemia (and resulting hypovolemia caused by osmotic diuresis) as well as metabolic acidosis induced by excess free fatty acid release and the production of ketone bodies.
In addition to the acute metabolic complication of ketoacidosis, the diabetic patient is susceotible to a series of late complications that cause considerable morbidity and premature mortality. Atherosclerosis occurs more extensively and earlier in diabetics than in the general population as a result of abnormalities in both glucose and lipid metabolism. This vascular pathology can lead to, inter alia, coronary artery disease, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease with gangrene. Retinopathy is another vascular complication of diabetes. Diabetic retinopathy is a leading cause of blindness, and is initiated by increased permeability of retinal capillaries which can progress to occlusion, hemorrhage, aneurysm formation, and neovascularization known as proliferative retinopathy.
In addition to vascular complications, kidney and neurological diseases (nephropathies and neuropathies) are common complications of diabetes. Diabetic nephropathy causes about half of end-stage renal disease in the United States. Histologically, the nephropathy is characterized by glomerular basement membrane widening and mesangial thickening. Initial signs include increasing proteinuria, with azotemia ultimately leading to renal failure. Diabetic neuropathy can affect any part of the nervous system, with the possible exception of the brain. The neuropathy is most commonly seen as peripheral polyneuropathy, with symptoms including numbness, paresthesias, severe hyperesthesias, and pain. Autonomic neuropathy can cause gastrointestinal dysfunction, orthostatic hypotension, bladder dysfunction or paralysis, and impotence. Diabetic foot ulcers represent a special problem of diabetics, and appear to be due primarily to abnormal pressure distribution secondary to diabetic neuropathy. The ulcerous lesions are often worsened by concomitant peripheral vascular disease and infection.
As mentioned above, meticulous control of blood glucose has been associated with amelioration of the late complications of Type 1 diabetes, suggesting that that preservation or restoration of beta cell function could reduce or eliminate the majority of the pathologic complications of the disease.
Pathogenesis of Type 1 Diabetes Type 1 diabetes only develops in genetically susceptible individuals, and symptoms generally appear before age 40, with the peak incidence of onset of overt symptomology occurring in the second decade of life. The pathogenesis of Type 1 diabetes is characterized by an initial phase of leukocyte infiltration into the islets, referred to as insulitis, followed over a period of time by the actual destruction of the islet beta cells by autoimmune attack. The insulitis phase is characterized by infiltration of pancreatic islets by both lymphocytes and cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage, and entails both cell-mediated inflammation as well as attack by islet-specific cytotoxic antibodies. Overt clinical symptoms of diabetes mellitus are generally manifested when over 90% of the islet beta cells are destroyed; however, as discussed more fully below, it is now possible to accurately detect individuals undergoing earlier stages of type 1 pathogenesis, i.e., before enough islet beta cells have been lost to produce overt clinical symptoms.
The autoimmune process is generally thought to be induced by an environmental stimulus. One reason for this belief is that an identical twin has only a fifty/fifty chance of developing IDDM if his identical sibling has the disease.
T Cells The autoimmune destruction of the beta cells of the pancreatic islets in Type 1 diabetes is believed to be initiated by white blood cells (leukocytes), most importantly T cells. T cells, or T-lymphocytes, are mononuclear white blood cells that provide many essential immune functions. The importance of T cells in human autoimmune diseases has been increasingly appreciated in the past two decades. Studies using treatments that result in generalized immunosuppression have defined a critical role for a subset of T cells, known as CD4+ or helper T cells, as primary regulators of all immune responses (both cellular and humoral) to protein or peptide antigens.
T cells mediate tissue injury by indirect and direct means. T cells of both CD8+ (cytotoxic) and CD4+ (helper) subsets secrete a variety of inflammatory cytokines that can damage tissues indirectly by activating various other types of white blood cells. Examples of such T cell effects include activation of antibody secreting B cells (stimulating humoral immune activity) and activation of macrophages, which can cause acute tissue damage and inflammation by releasing hydrolytic enzymes, reactive oxygen species, and additional pro-inflammatory cytokines. In addition to these indirect effects of T cell activity, direct tissue damage can be mediated by CD8+cytotoxic T cells attacking cells displaying target antigens.
One unique aspect of the physiology of T cells is the presence of membrane bound antibody-like binding structures called T cell receptors (TCRs) on their cell surfaces. Like antibodies, TCRs bind with high specificity to particular antigens. Like antibody-producing cells, which develop as multitudinous clones of cells, each clone producing antibodies with unique specificities, T cells develop as a vast number of distinct clones, and any particular T cell clone expresses a single type of TCR with a defined binding specificity. T cell clones with TCRs that bind specifically to self antigens are responsible for the development of autoimmune diseases.
Studies of the interactions of antibodies and TCRs with their specific antigens have shown that a particular polypeptide antigen typically comprises numerous submolecular features, known as epitopes, that each can serve as a distinct binding site for a particular antibody or TCR.
T Cells and Autoimmune Diseases In autoimmune diseases, only a limited number of T cell clones, reactive with various epitopes of a small number of autoantigens, become activated and are involved in pathogenesis. Even in individuals suffering from autoimmune diseases, only a small percentage of T cell clones (0.1-1%) are known to recognize autoantigens.
Various mechanisms have been postulated to play a role in the pathogenic activation of disease-causing autoreactive T cells. Primary activation of antigen presenting cells (APCs) by infection or local inflammation is implicated in one such mechanism. APCs activated in this way can then provide powerful co-stimulation for hitherto unreactive T cells.
Other proposed mechanisms involve the polyclonal activation of previously quiescent autoreactive T cells by superantigens, such as bacterial toxins; or a coincidental molecular mimicry between foreign and self antigens (Abbas et. al. 1994). In this last case, the host immune system mounts a response to an epitope on a protein expressed by a pathogen, such as a virus, that resembles a homologous epitope on a host protein. Autoimmune attack then results from the cross-reactive immune response that ensues.
In addition to external factors, underlying the emergence of all T cell-mediated autoimmune disease is a complex pattern of inherited susceptibility determined by multigenic factors. For further discussions of these various factors, Steinman, 1995, reviews current theories of autoimmunity.
Alterations in the T cell repertoire occur naturally during T cell development. Only a small fraction of thymocytes (immature T cells) survive the intrathymic development and selection events that result in emigration of developing T cells to the peripheral circulation and the completion of their maturation (von Boehmer, 1988; Marrack and Kappler, 1987). Experimental evidence strongly suggests that a large number of thymocytes that bear receptors for autoantigens are initially present in the thymus. Recent studies have yielded evidence suggesting that a process referred to as programmed cell death, or apoptosis, destroys these autoreactive thymocytes in the thymus while sparing thymocytes that are not autoreactive. Apoptosis thus plays a large role in shaping and maintaining the T cell repertoire and contributes to the establishment of self-tolerance by actively eliminating cells expressing autoreactive TCRs.
It has recently been discovered that T cells are sensitive to apoptotic cell death induced by a variety of stimuli at multiple points in their lifespan (see, for example, Lenardo 1991; Boehme and Lenardo 1993; Critchfield et al. 1994). Positive selection factors are also believed to play a role in regulating the survival of specific T cell clones. The reduction or expansion of the number of individual T cells of a particular clone in an organism by these and other mechanisms serve to modulate the responsiveness of the organism's immune system to a particular antigen. It is now firmly established in several autoimmune disease models, as well as in certain viral infections, that apoptosis can be induced (upon exposure to antigen under certain defined conditions) in mature peripheral antigen-specific T lymphocytes as well as in immature thymocytes.
Apoptosis occurs in many biological systems (see, for example, Kerr et al. 1991; Lockshin and Zakeri, 1991; Cohen et al. 1992; Duvall and Wyllie, 1986; Cotter et al. 1990). A cell undergoing apoptosis undergoes a specific program of events—cellular and biochemical processes that depend upon active metabolism and contribute to the cell's self-destruction. In apoptotic T cells, the nucleus shrinks, the chromatin condenses, the genetic material (DNA) progressively degrades into small (nucleosomal repeat sized) fragments, there is cytoplasmic compaction, the cell membrane forms blebs, and the cell eventually collapses (Kawabe and Ochi, 1991; Smith et al. 1989). Cells cannot recover from apoptosis, it results in irreversible cell death (Kawabe and Ochi, 1991; Smith et al. 1989).
Recent reports have suggested a role for the TNF-related cytokine known as the FAS ligand and its receptor, CD95 (the FAS receptor), in the induction of apoptosis in T cells (Crispe et al. 1994; Nagata and Suda, 1995; Strasser, 1995; Dhein et al., 1995; Brunner et al., 1995; and Ju et al., 1995).
Islet Beta Cell Autoantigens As discussed above, the onset of Type 1 diabetes is considered to be mediated by T cells. The disease is believed to be a consequence of inappropriate T cell responses specific to certain islet beta cell proteins that act as autoantigens. In addition to autoreactive T cells, autoantibodies against various self antigens have also been reported in IDDM patients. The antigens reported to be bound by these autoantibodies include many of those that have been reported to be recognized by autoreactive T cells.
Autoantigens that are subject to autoimmune responses in Type 1 patients include the 64-65 kDa GAD (glutamate decarboxylase) and the 67 kDa GAD autoantigens; insulin; sialyglycolipid; a 38 kD antigen from the secretory granules of beta cells; an antigen cross reactive with antibodies to bovine albumin known as the beta cell p69 protein, PM-1, or disease-modifying antigen, a beta cell cytoskeletal protein known as peripherin, glucose transporter proteins, including GLUT-2; heat shock protein 65 (HSP 65), including the p277 peptide; carboxypeptidase H; a 52 Kd molecular mimic of Rubella virus antigen; a beta cell membrane associated protein of 150 kDa; a protein antigen located at the secretory pole of the rat insulinoma cell line RINm38, referred to as the RIN polar antigen; and (at first) poorly characterized antigens isolated by immunoscreening of an islet cDNA expression library, referred to as ICA12 and ICA512. ICA512, now also known as IA-2, is immunologically related to phogrin, which is also subject to autoimmune responses in Type 1 patients (Hatfield et al., 1997).
The relative importance of these various autoantigens to autoimmune pathogenesis, and the timing with which each plays a role during the course of disease onset and development, are the subject of considerable uncertainty and consequent controversy in the art. Further uncertainty stems from the fact that each supposed autoantigen comprises numerous epitopes, some of which may be have disease promoting effects while others may have disease suppressive effects.
While not wishing to be bound by any particular theory of operation, in accordance with certain aspects of the invention insulin and GAD are believed to provide the most effective therapeutic effects on the development of Type 1 diabetes of any of the autoantigens implicated as playing a role in the pathogenesis of the disease. In accordance with certain other aspects of the invention, IA-2 is also believed to provide effective therapeutic effects.
Autoantibodies to 64-65 kD GAD (hereinafter GAD 65) normally are detected before the onset of clinical insulin dependent Type 1 diabetes mellitus, and among nondiabetic relatives of patients with IDDM as well as others at risk. These autoantibodies have been suggested to be the best predictive autoantibody marker for impending Type 1 diabetes.
GAD 65 and GAD 67 are encoded by different genes on different chromosomes, the genes being about 70% homologous. Human islets only express GAD 65, although both protein forms are found in the brain. Evidence of lymphocyte specific immunity to GAD 65 has been demonstrated and found to be closely associated with IDDM. Recent studies in the NOD mouse model of diabetes have indicated that T cell responses to GAD 65 precede those to other putative autoantigens and that early induction of T cell tolerance to GAD 65 can prevent onset of disease.
Kaufman et al (1993) and Tisch et al (1993) have presented data that suggest that GAD responses are the most important in disease development, as they were reported to arise first during the development of Type 1 diabetes, with responses to other beta cell autoantigens only appearing much later in the course of the disease, with insulin reactivity being amongst the last to appear. These findings were interpreted as indicating that GAD 65 is the key autoantigen in Type 1 diabetes, and that modulation of autoimmune reactivity with GAD would be the most appropriate target for reducing disease pathology. In accordance with this theoretical understanding of disease progression, modulation of insulin reactive T cells would be closing the barn door after the horses had gone, the anti-insulin reactions being observed so late in disease progression that their modulation would not be expected to affect the onset or severity of disease.
Insulin autoantibodies (IAA) can be detected in around 50% of new onset patients, and are highly associated with islet cell autoantibodies (ICA) and the HLA-DR4 phenotype. Other studies suggest that individuals with both ICA and IAA have a much higher risk for developing overt Type 1 diabetes than those with either marker alone. T cell responses to insulin as an autoantigen have also been described. In one study cellular responses to human insulin were present in almost 90% of ICA-positive first degree relatives of IDDM patients. Also, as discussed below in the examples, insulin reactive T cells from diabetic NOD mice can transfer diabetes to non-diabetic NOD mice.
Responses of T cells from Type 1 diabetes patients or from at-risk individuals to undefined islet cell preparations have suggested that T cells also respond to other islet cell antigens. These include a 38 kD antigen from the secretory granules of beta cells, and serum albumin. In addition, heat shock protein (HSP) 65 has been implicated as a T cell autoantigen based upon the finding that HSP-specific T cells transfer disease in NOD mice.
Carboxypeptidase H is a molecule found in islet secretory granules and is associated with the production of peptide hormones and neurotransmitters. It was identified as a potential islet autoantigen by the screening of cDNA expression libraries with sera from IDDM or pre-IDDM patients.
Several other putative islet cell antigens, such as ICA12 and ICA512, have also been identified by screening of cDNA expression libraries.
Intra-antigenic and inter-antigenic spread of autoreactivity (“epitope spreading”) are related phenomena associated with autoimmune diseases in which additional epitopes within an antigen, or additional antigens within a target tissue, become targeted by autoreactive T cells during disease progression. Such antigen spreading has been observed during the course of the inflammatory autoimmune process in the murine models of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) and insulin-dependent diabetes (Lehmann et al. 1992; McCarron et al. 1990; Kaufman et al. 1993; Tisch et al. 1993).
These findings of antigen/epitope spreading suggest that for a therapeutic treatment to provide effective immune tolerance to islet beta cell autoantigens, the treatment will need to target a heterogeneous population of specific autoreactive T cells. Therefore, in order for antigen administration to be maximally effective in the prevention and treatment of Type 1 diabetes, it is desirable that a plurality of the immunodominant epitopes of both insulin and GAD 65 be presented to the disease producing autoreactive T lymphocytes.
Prediction and Diagnosis of Type 1 Disease As discussed above, there is a genetic aspect to the incidence of Type 1 diabetes. Accordingly, genetic tests can identify certain individuals at increased risk of developing the disease (see, for example, Walston et al. 1995). Furthermore, individuals with a known family history of the disease can be monitored for early, preclinical signs of disease development, e.g., by monitoring levels of the autoantibodies and autoreactive T cells discussed herein.
Autoantibodies Among the autoantibodies known to be associated with Type 1 diabetes, those directed against GAD 65 are the ones that appear earliest and are present in the largest number of patients. Overall, recent studies have shown that over 80% of individuals with preclinical diabetes have GAD-specific autoantibodies. In this case an individual with preclinical disease is defined as a first degree relative of a Type 1 diabetes patient with ICA. The antigens identified by ICA are ill-defined, but together with IAA and GAD-specific autoantibodies, they yield a high predictive value for onset of diabetes in preclinical individuals. Interestingly, in actual early onset disease, the frequency of GAD-specific antibodies declines. This could be due to the fact that GAD 65 reactivity declines with beta cell destruction.
Prediction of Type 1 diabetes may also be facilitated by monitoring of the subject's blood sugar levels, preferably, in conjunction with the administration of a glucose tolerance test to the subject. Such procedures are preferably carried out in combination with the monitoring of titers of the subject's circulating IAA, ICA, and GAD autoantibodies.
In accordance with the present invention, the chimeric proteins of the invention are fusion proteins that may be used as antigenic substrates for the detection of circulating autoantibodies, particularly IAA and/or GAD 65 autoantibodies, in diagnostic assays such as Western blot, ELISA, RIA, ELISPOT, and the like.
T cells Assays for the detection of T cells with specific reactivities are well known in the art, and include the mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR) and the ELISPOT assay. ELISPOT assays are described, for example in Taguchi et al., J Immunol Meth 1990, 128:65 and Sun et al., J Immunol 1991 146:1490. In accordance with the invention, the chimeric fusion proteins of the invention may be used as substrates in such assays for the detection and quantification of insulin reactive T cells and/or GAD 65 reactive T cells and/or IA-2 reactive T cells.
Current Methods for Prevention and Treatment of Type 1 Diabetes. While diabetes has been studied for centuries, only a few effective treatments are available for type 1 disease. The first line of treatment is diet, with appropriate caloric intake based on ideal body weight and a defined distribution among protein, glucose, and fat. However, in IDDM patients, the most important component of therapy is the administration of insulin, the goal of which is to maintain glucose levels as close to the normal range as possible throughout the day. Insulin is available in rapid, intermediate, and long-acting formulations which vary in onset, peak, and duration of action, and can be used in varying schedules of administration to attempt to optimally regulate plasma glucose levels.
Intensive insulin therapy refers to a rigorous regimen of administration of hormonally effective insulin and monitoring of blood sugar levels. This regimen is designed to control blood glucose as precisely as possible. The results of the multicenter Diabetes Control and Complication Trial established that complications of diabetes are significantly diminished by better control of blood glucose levels, and thus demonstrated the desirability of intensive insulin therapy. One problem with this approach is that intensive insulin therapy requires a high level of patient awareness and compliance, as well as a highly skilled care team of physicians, nurses, and dietitians. The goals of intensive insulin therapy are thus extremely difficult to achieve, even with motivated and educated patients. Another problem is that a higher rate of hypoglycemia is seen in such rigorously treated patients than in patients receiving standard, less rigorous, insulin regimens.
The Diabetes Control and Complication Trial highlighted not only the benefit to overall metabolic health of maintaining normal blood glucose levels, but also a fundamental problem associated with the treatment of Type 1 diabetes, namely that the overt symptoms of the disease are manifested only when essentially all of the patients' islets are destroyed. Oral agents for diabetes, such as the sulfonylureas, act primarily by stimulating the release of insulin from dysfunctional beta cells, and thus are not useful for most patients with type 1 disease, i.e. for those patients with IDDM.
A major goal in the treatment of diabetes has been to develop therapies capable of aborting the autoimmune attack on the islet beta cells prior to their complete destruction, thereby preserving enough endogenous function to maintain normal metabolic control.
Induction of tolerance In the NOD (non-obese diabetic) mouse model of diabetes, it has been shown that oral feeding of insulin delayed the onset and reduced the severity of the disease. The mechanism proposed to explain oral tolerance is that oral antigen administration induces populations of antigen-specific Th2 T cells that secrete antiinflammatory cytokines such as IL-4, IL-10, and TGF-beta. These T cells circulate and are activated to secrete cytokines only in the presence of their specific antigen. Thus, insulin-specific Th2 T cells would be activated only in the pancreas where they would produce suppressive cytokines to modulate the autoimmune process. This mechanism does not require, therefore, that the oral antigen actually represent a disease-specific autoantigen, but rather only that it is expressed in a tissue specific fashion.
In contrast, methods designed to produce T cell tolerance (e.g., by anergy or apoptosis) require the identification of the actual disease-specific autoantigens that are targeted by autoimmune attack. Such antigens are then administered to patients in an appropriate tolerizing fashion (which may also induce non-antigen-specific tolerizing effects). Given that Type 1 diabetes is in significant measure a disease mediated by islet-specific autoreactive T cells, therapy of this type should be feasible in principle. Thus, induction of neonatal tolerance to GAD 65, as referred to above, prevented onset of disease in NOD mice. In addition, injection of crude islet extracts intrathymically, where tolerization of developing T cells takes place, has also protected both NOD mice as well as pre-diabetic BB rats from developing clinical disease.
One approach taken to induce insulin tolerance involves the parenteral administration of insulin, in combination with a conventional adjuvant (e.g., Freund's adjuvant). Typically this approach involves the administration of doses of insulin that would not be large enough to be expected to cause insulin shock in the patient. Notably, the insulin moieties of the chimeric fusion proteins of the present invention are hormonally ineffective, and are thus suitable for use in accordance with the methods of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/565,769, filed in the name of Yi Wang, which is incorporated herein by reference.
Apoptosis Apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in many biological systems (Kerr et al., 1991; Lockshin and Zakeri, 1991; Cohen et al., 1992; Duvall and Wyllie, 1986; Cotter et al., 1990). As discussed above, an apoptotic cell undergoes a specific program of events that depend upon active metabolism and contribute to its own self-destruction. T cells that do not undergo apoptosis, but which have become activated, will carry out their “effector” functions by causing cytolysis, or by secreting lymphokines that cause B cell responses or other immune effects (Paul, 1989, pp. 3-38). These “effector” functions are the cause of tissue damage in autoimmune and other diseases. A powerful approach to avoiding disease is thus to permanently eliminate by apoptosis only those T cells reactive with autoimmune disease-inciting antigens, while leaving the majority of the T cell repertoire intact. The use of auto-antigens to carry out this approach is described in PCT patent publication No. 94/28926, filed in the name of Michael J. Lenardo, and entitled Interleukin-2 Stimulated T Lymphocyte Cell Death for the Treatment of Autoimmune Diseases, Allergic Disorders, and Graft Rejection, and PCT patent publication No. 94/03202, filed in the name of Michael J. Lenardo, Stefen A. Boehme, and Jeffrey Critchfield and entitled Interleukin-4 Stimulated T Lymphocyte Cell Death, both of which patent publications are incorporated herein by reference.
Transplantation Transplantation of healthy pancreata, pancreatic tissue, or isolated pancreatic islets into patients suffering from Type 1 diabetes provides an effective treatment modality. Unfortunately, the duration of the therapeutic benefit of such transplants is currently limited by the same autoimmune phenomena that cause type 1 disease in the first place. Accordingly, treatment of a diabetic patient using the chimeric fusion proteins of the invention in accordance with the methods of the present invention, when carried out prior to, concomitantly with, and/or shortly after such a transplant, will increase the longevity of such transplants and thereby enhance the therapeutic benefit of such transplantation procedures.
The accompanying figures, which are incorporated in and constitute part of the specification, illustrate certain aspects of the invention, and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. It is to be understood, of course, that both the figures and the description are explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention.